Dugongs are the only fully aquatic herbivorous mammal with a gentle temperament and a friendly appearance. It belongs to the order Sirenia and is the only surviving species in the family Dugongidae (Beech 2010). Traces of dugongs have been found in the coastal water of at 48 countries, but the biggest habitats are the northern waters of Australia between Shark Bay and Moreton Bay (Al-Abdulrazzak & Pauly 2017). Despite of many environmental and anthropogenic factors, such as a shallow water body, high salinity, and petroleum extraction (Preen, 2003), the second largest population of dugongs is found in the Arabian Gulf the Arabian Gulf. The modern population is estimated to be 5800 individuals (Preen 2003), and 75% of those are living off the coasts of Abu Dhabi (CMS 2015). As the consequence of anthropogenic intervention, Dugongs are facing many threats, and they are classified as vulnerable on the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) Red List.
Even though dugongs do not seem to be directly related to the dhow culture, there has been an implicit connection between the two from the prehistory to the present days. With the development of dhow culture, the maritime landscape also began to spread out. It connects cultures across the historical trade route and enables exchange of stories, rituals, and customs. Dugongs have been a part of the maritime heritage in the Arabian Gulf as a romanticized creature in fairytales, a scared tribute in rituals, and magical figure in mythology. At the same time, the development of dhow culture attributes to an increasing anthropogenic activities in the sea, which influences the natural environment. The destiny of dugongs as a species unfortunately reflects the detrimental effect of the expansion of maritime practices. The following article will explain in detail the important role of dugongs in the methodology and maritime practices of the people living in the Arabian Gulf and historic trade routes.
Dugongs in the past
The earliest evidence of exploitation of dugongs in the Arabian Gulf dated back to more than 7,500 years ago. Bones of dugongs were found on Marawah Island in the western region of Abu Dhabi (Beech 2010). On the archaeological site, a large number of dugong rib fragments and shoulder blades were excavated. The evidence shows that the carcass of dugongs were butchered and segments were transported to the site, which were eventually consumed by the indigenous group. Other studies have shown evidence for dugong hunting from the 5-6 millennia, as archeologists found dugong remains – mostly ribs, rarely scapulae and tusks (Mery et al. 2008). The evidence reveals that dugongs were butchered from early in the history, and the main purpose was to exploited its flesh and oil.
Recently, a team of French palaeontologists discovered a Neolithic dugong bond mound on Akab Island in Umm al-Qaiwain (Beech 2010). When the site was first discovered, the hypothesis that the site was a butchering place was proposed. However, In 2009, a group of French archaeologists and archaeozoologists reinvestigated the site and presented new evidence about how coastal societies used dugong bones as a part of the ritual practice in the fourth millennium (Méry et al. 2009). Some features of the dugong bone mound were described in the report:
“The base of the structure consists of mandibles laid flat, wedged by ribs. They provide a foundation upon which the skulls, placed in anatomical position, were aligned. The skulls were carefully wedged by ribs and disposed in a preferential manner, with a row of eight aligned at the front. The structure was deliberately oriented, as the premaxilla of animals, deeply embedded, are always directed towards the east or the north-east (with a maximum gradient of 30◦) and bundles of ribs were deposited just in front of the eastern row of skulls. The mandibles were separated from the skulls prior to deposition on the bone mound. The lower level of the platform, still under excavation, consists of broken dugong bones compacted by trampling.” (Méry et al., 2009)
The description above shows that the dugong bond mound has a complex organization and structure. Specific bones, such as skulls, and many selected objects occupied the focal point in the structure, which bears witness to their specific status. How the bones were gathered and which animals were included were carefully selected and sampled. Based on the hypothesis, archaeologists reasonably deduced the dugong bone mound was a monument in ritual practices.
Even though there is no other parallel evidence found in the Arabian Peninsula, the use of Dugong bones as a part of traditional rituals was prevalent in many other places around the world. On Australian coasts of the Torres Strait, evidence was found that the dugong bone mounds were built as a part of totemic ceremonial sites at around 14th-20thcentury AD. The site was known as kod sites, used as sacred sanctuaries for men (Mery et al. 2008). The sites were constructed in a similar pattern – bones of dugongs among deposited objects, terrestrial and marine fauna. The purpose of the mound as well as the proprietary rites were to call for hunting magic (McNiven & Feldman 2003). Thus, dugong were associated with traditional rituals, which sheds light on its special status among different coastal communities around the world.
Another evidence of the importance role of dugongs in rituals is found in graves. At Ghubba village on the south coast of Marawah Island, graves of the coastal residents were found. In two of the graves, deposits of dugong bones - mostly fragments of skulls and jaws from the juvenile dugongs - were found (Beech 2010). In both cases, the dugong bones were placed near the head of the deceased. Deduced from how deposits in the grave were associated with the identity of the deceased, it is reasonable to make the hypothesis that these graves belonged to successful dugong hunters. Therefore, in the time when dugong hunting was common, it even became a profession that defined one’s identity.
Stories and mythologies about dugongs have also long existed for thousands of years. Dugongs were probably the real-life prototype of mermaids, with tails that resemble Hollywood mermaids and a permanent “smile” on their face (Yunis 2019). Dugongs are one of the natural animals that shows affinity to humans. A part of the reason is that they can only hold breath for 12 minutes and they constantly need to surface from the water for fresh air. Still, it largely increases the chance of interaction with humans. According to Helene Marsh, a professor of Environmental Science at Cook University in Australia, where the largest group of dugongs populate, for sailors who have been out in the sea for a long period, the image of dugongs remind them of women, especially when they are breastfeeding (Yunis 2019). Due to frequent interactions and emotional attachment, dugongs are always personified by humans on the sea and provided inspirations for many stories. 8000 years ago, dugongs already appeared on the rock painting by aboriginal Australian as a part of “a great fish chase” (Yunis 2019). About 3000 years ago, stories about mermaids started to circulate in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean (Yunis 2019). The famous explorer, Christopher Columbus, recorded an incidence of sighting mermaids near today’s Dominican Republic (Yunis 2019). And in One Thousand and One Nights, dugongs appeared in the stories at least twice (Yunis).
How are Dugongs Today?
Dugongs have not escaped the tragic destiny of being exploited in current days. Traditionally, dugongs were hunted for food by coastal residents and were considered a delicacy in the region. In the 1990s, the practice was outlawed in the UAE. However, when dugongs were accidentally caught up in nets, it was unlikely that they would be released. In the market, dugong meat was still sold at a high price. According to anecdotes told by fishermen on Murawah Island, dry dugong meat was sold for US$7.5 per kilogram and for a freshly caught dugong for US $210 in the late 1980s (Preen 1989). The fishing nets was the primary reason why dugongs are still caught up, usually accidentally. A dugong has poor eyesight, so it can easily swim into a fishing net, often gill nets for sharks and kingfish, and get trapped and suffocated for not getting fresh air (Robertson, 2015; Baldwin & Cockcrof, 1997). In the UAE, an average of 15 new Dugongs carcasses were found every year, which were thought to be discarded after accidental catch (EAD 2016).
Dugongs in the Gulf are also facing numerous threats as a result of anthropogenic activities. First, the Gulf region is the place where a large number of petroleum extraction activities take place. Therefore, oil spills are common, which pollutes the submarine environment. In fact, two of the largest skills in the history occurred in the region in 1983 and 1991, which resulted in large mortalities of dugongs (Al-Abdulrazzak and Pauly, 2017). Moreover, it is thought that the current will bring the oil-polluted water from the oil extraction region to dugong’s habitats (Marsh et al., 2002). Second, the rapid coastal development in the Gulf region also damages the seagrass habitats that dugongs heavily reply on. Seagrass is not only the main food source for dugongs, but also the nurseries for the offsprings. However, based on the statistics provided by the Abu Dhabi-based Dugong and Seagrass Conservation Project (DSCP), there is a 29 percent reduction in the quantity of seagrass in the region than decades ago. Several dredging and reclamation sites occur to be at the center of dugong habitats. Dredging will damage the seagrass bed and increase salinity of the water, which makes the living environment more hostile for dugongs.
Due to the rising pollution, coastal developments, and fishing practices, the population of dugongs has declined more rapidly than ever in the past few decades. Dugongs are listed as vulnerable to extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It is a challenge to raise the population again as dugongs have a long lifespan but a slow reproductive cycle. Statistics have suggested that “if the reproductive rates of dugongs are similar to those of cetaceans of similar life history, then even annual mortality rates of a little as 2% may not be sustainable.” (Baldwin & Cockcrof, 1997) The UAE, being the second largest habitat for dugongs, was one of the first Middle Eastern countries that signed the 2007 international agreement on the conservation and management of dugongs and their habitats. According to Dr Kwan, the Program Officer of Dugongs CMS, the project would include “seagrass conservation, developing tourism projects or controlling use of destructive fishing practices such as moving people off nets to using hook and line.” (Robertson, 2015)
Conclusion
The development of dhow culture over the past centuries bears witness to the expansion of maritime practices in the Arabian Gulf as well as other historical trade routes. Unfortunately, dugongs became the victim of the increasing anthropogenic activities with its habitats being devastated and its population dwindling. It is reassuring to see that the environmental enthusiasts, marine biologists, policy makers are protecting the species from endangerment. However, to protect a species requires more than maintaining its population, but also preserving the relevant heritage and culture. Besides illustrating the impact of human activities on the population of dugongs, the article also aims to highlight that dugongs have been an integral part of the livelihood and methodology of people living in the Arabian Gulf, and the cultural role of dugongs is also valuable knowledge that deserves to be looked into and passed on.
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